Blog

Sustainable Development Goals

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

The Sustainable Development Goals or Global Goals are a collection of seventeen interlinked objectives designed to serve as a “shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet, now and into the future”.[1][2][3] The SDGs are: no poverty; zero hunger; good health and well-being; quality education; gender equality; clean water and sanitation; affordable and clean energy; decent work and economic growth; industry, innovation and infrastructure; reduced inequalities; sustainable cities and communities; responsible consumption and production; climate action; life below water; life on land; peace, justice, and strong institutions; and partnerships for the goals. The SDGs emphasize the interconnected environmental, social and economic aspects of sustainable development by putting sustainability at their center.[4]

The SDGs were formulated in 2015 by the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) as part of the Post-2015 Development Agenda, which sought to create a future global development framework to succeed the Millennium Development Goals, which ended that year.[5] They were formally articulated and adopted in a UNGA resolution called the 2030 Agenda, known colloquially as Agenda 2030.[6] On 6 July 2017, the SDGs were made more actionable by a UNGA resolution that identifies specific targets for each goal and provides indicators to measure progress.[7] Most targets are to be achieved by 2030, although some have no end date.[8]

There are cross-cutting issues and synergies between the different goals; for example, for SDG 13 on climate action, the IPCC sees robust synergies with SDGs 3 (health), 7 (clean energy), 11 (cities and communities), 12 (responsible consumption and production) and 14 (oceans).[9][10]: 70  Conversely, critics and observers have also identified trade-offs between the goals,[10]: 67 such as between ending hunger and promoting environmental sustainability.[11]: 26  Other concerns include there being too many goals (resulting in compounding trade-offs), a weak emphasis on environmental sustainability, and difficulties tracking qualitative indicators.

The SDGs are monitored by the UN High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF), an annual forum held under the auspices of the United Nations Economic and Social Council. However, the HLPF comes with its own set of problems due to a lack of political leadership and divergent national interests.[12]: 206  To facilitate monitoring of progress on SDG implementation, the online SDG Tracker was launched in June 2018 to present all available data across all indicators.[13] The COVID-19 pandemic had serious negative impacts on all 17 SDGs in 2020.[14] A scientific assessment on the political impacts of the SDGs found in 2022 that the SDGs have only had limited transformative political impact thus far.[15] At the very least, they have affected the way actors understand and communicate about sustainable development.[15]

Adoption[edit]

A diagram listing the 17 Sustainable Development Goals

On 25 September 2015, the 193 countries of the UN General Assembly adopted the 2030 Development Agenda titled “Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”.[16][17][18] This agenda has 92 paragraphs. Paragraph 59 outlines the 17 Sustainable Development Goals and the associated 169 targets and 232 indicators.

The UN-led process involved its 193 Member States and global civil society. The resolution is a broad intergovernmental agreement that acts as the Post-2015 Development Agenda. The SDGs build on the principles agreed upon in Resolution A/RES/66/288, entitled “The Future We Want”.[19] This was a non-binding document released as a result of Rio+20 Conference held in 2012.[19]

 

Implementation[edit]

Implementation of the SDGs started worldwide in 2016. This process can also be called Localizing the SDGs. In 2019 António Guterres (secretary-general of the United Nations) issued a global call for a Decade of Action to deliver the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030.[20] This decade will last from 2020 to 2030. The plan is that the secretary general of the UN will convene an annual platform for driving the Decade of Action.[21]

There are two main types of actors for implementation of the SDGs: state and non-state actors.[15] State actors include national governments and sub-national authorities, whereas non-state actors are corporations and civil society.[22]: 80  Civil society participation and empowerment is important but there are also diverse interests in this group.[22]: 80 

Building new partnerships is useful.[22] However, the SDGs are not legally binding and purposefully designed to provide much leeway for actors. Therefore, they can interpret the goals differently and often according to their interests.[15]

 

Content of the 17 goals[edit]

Structure of goals, targets and indicators[edit]

The lists of targets and indicators for each of the 17 SDGs was published in a UN resolution in July 2017.[7] Each goal typically has 8–12 targets, and each target has between one and four indicators used to measure progress toward reaching the targets, with the average of 1.5 indicators per target.[23] The targets are either outcome targets (circumstances to be attained) or means of implementation targets.[24] The latter targets were introduced late in the process of negotiating the SDGs to address the concern of some Member States about how the SDGs were to be achieved. Goal 17 is wholly about how the SDGs will be achieved.[24]

 

The numbering system of targets is as follows: Outcome targets use numbers, whereas means of implementation targets use lower case letters.[24] For example, SDG 6 has a total of 8 targets. The first six are outcome targets and are labeled Targets 6.1 to 6.6. The final two targets are means of implementation targets and are labeled as Targets 6.a and 6.b.

The United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) website provides a current official indicator list which includes all updates until the 51st session Statistical Commission in March 2020.[8]

 

The indicators for the targets have varying levels of methodological development and availability of data at the global level.[25] Initially, some indicators (called Tier 3 indicators) had no internationally established methodology or standards. Later, the global indicator framework was adjusted so that Tier 3 indicators were either abandoned, replaced or refined.[25] As of 17 July 2020, there were 231 unique indicators.[25]

 

Data or information must address all vulnerable groups such as children, elderly folks, persons with disabilities, refugees, indigenous peoples, migrants, and internally-displaced persons.[26]

 

Reviews of indicators[edit]

The indicator framework was comprehensively reviewed at the 51st session of the United Nations Statistical Commission in 2020. It will be reviewed again in 2025.[27] At the 51st session of the Statistical Commission (held in New York City from 3–6 March 2020) a total of 36 changes to the global indicator framework were proposed for the Commission’s consideration. Some indicators were replaced, revised or deleted.[27] Between 15 October 2018 and 17 April 2020, other changes were made to the indicators.[28] Yet their measurement continues to be fraught with difficulties.[29]

 

Listing of 17 goals with their targets and indicators[edit]

Further information: List of Sustainable Development Goal targets and indicators

Goal 1: No poverty[edit]

SDG 1 is to: “End poverty in all its forms everywhere”.[30] Achieving SDG 1 would end extreme poverty globally by 2030. One of its indicators is the proportion of population living below the poverty line.[30] The data gets analyzed by sex, age, employment status, and geographical location (urban/rural).

This section is an excerpt from Sustainable Development Goal 1.[edit]

The goal has seven targets and 13 indicators to measure progress. The five outcome targets are: eradication of extreme poverty; reduction of all poverty by half; implementation of social protection systems; ensuring equal rights to ownership, basic services, technology and economic resources; and the building of resilience to environmental, economic and social disasters. The two targets related to means of implementation[31] SDG 1 are mobilization of resources to end poverty; and the establishment of poverty eradication policy frameworks at all levels.[32][33]

 

Goal 2: Zero hunger (No hunger)[edit]

SDG 2 is to: “End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture“.[34] Indicators for this goal are for example the prevalence of undernourishment, prevalence of severe food insecurity, and prevalence of stunting among children under five years of age.

This section is an excerpt from Sustainable Development Goal 2.[edit]

SDG 2 has eight targets and 14 indicators to measure progress.[35] The five outcome targets are: ending hunger and improving access to food; ending all forms of malnutrition; agricultural productivity; sustainable food production systems and resilient agricultural practices; and genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals; investments, research and technology. The three means of implementation targets[36] include: addressing trade restrictions and distortions in world agricultural markets and food commodity markets and their derivatives.[35]

 

Goal 3: Good health and well-being[edit]

SDG 3 is to: “Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages”.[37] Important indicators here are life expectancy as well as child and maternal mortality. Further indicators are for example deaths from road traffic injuries, prevalence of current tobacco use, suicide mortality rate.[37]

This section is an excerpt from Sustainable Development Goal 3.[edit]

SDG 3 has 13 targets and 28 indicators to measure progress toward targets. The first nine targets are outcome targets. Those are: reduction of maternal mortality; ending all preventable deaths under five years of age; fight communicable diseases; ensure reduction of mortality from non-communicable diseases and promote mental health; prevent and treat substance abuse; reduce road injuries and deaths; grant universal access to sexual and reproductive care, family planning and education; achieve universal health coverage; and reduce illnesses and deaths from hazardous chemicals and pollution. The four means of implementation targets[38] are: implement the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control; support research, development and universal access to affordable vaccines and medicines; increase health financing and support health workforce in developing countries; and improve early warning systems for global health risks.[39]

 

Goal 4: Quality education[edit]

SDG 4 is to: “Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”.[40] The indicators for this goal are for example attendance rates at primary schools, completion rates of primary school education, participation in tertiary education and so forth. In each case, parity indices are looked at to ensure that disadvantaged students do not miss out (data is collected on “female/male, rural/urban, bottom/top wealth quintile and others such as disability status, indigenous peoples”) . There is also an indicator around the facilities that the school buildings have (access to electricity, the internet, computers, drinking water, toilets etc.).[40]

This section is an excerpt from Sustainable Development Goal 4.[edit]

SDG 4 has ten targets which are measured by 11 indicators. The seven outcome targets are: free primary and secondary education; equal access to quality pre-primary education; affordable technical, vocational and higher education; increased number of people with relevant skills for financial success; elimination of all discrimination in education; universal literacy and numeracy; and education for sustainable development and global citizenship. The three means of implementation targets[41] are: build and upgrade inclusive and safe schools; expand higher education scholarships for developing countries; and increase the supply of qualified teachers in developing countries.

 

Goal 5: Gender equality[edit]

SDG 5 is to: “Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls”.[42] Indicators include for example having suitable legal frameworks and the representation by women in national parliament or in local deliberative bodies.[14] Numbers on forced marriage and female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) are also included in another indicator.[43][14]

This section is an excerpt from Sustainable Development Goal 5.[edit]

Through the pledge to “Leave No One Behind”, countries have committed to fast-track progress for those furthest behind, first.[44]: 54  SDG 5 aims to grant women and girls equal rights, opportunities to live free without discrimination including workplace discrimination or any violence. This is to achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.

 

Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation[edit]

SDG 6 is to: “Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all”.[45] The Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) of WHO and UNICEF is responsible for monitoring progress to achieve the first two targets of this goal. Important indicators for this goal are the percentages of the population that uses safely managed drinking water, and has access to safely managed sanitation. The JMP reported in 2017 that 4.5 billion people do not have safely managed sanitation.[46] Another indicator looks at the proportion of domestic and industrial wastewater that is safely treated.

This section is an excerpt from Sustainable Development Goal 6.[edit]

The six outcome targets include: Safe and affordable drinking water; end open defecation and provide access to sanitation, and hygiene, improve water quality, wastewater treatment and safe reuse, increase water-use efficiency and ensure freshwater supplies, implement IWRM, protect and restore water-related ecosystems. The two means of implementation targets[47] are to expand water and sanitation support to developing countries, and to support local engagement in water and sanitation management.[48]

 

Goal 7: Affordable and clean energy[edit]

SDG 7 is to: “Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all”.[49] One of the indicators for this goal is the percentage of population with access to electricity (progress in expanding access to electricity has been made in several countries, notably India, Bangladesh, and Kenya[50]). Other indicators look at the renewable energy share and energy efficiency.

This section is an excerpt from Sustainable Development Goal 7.[edit]

The goal has five targets to be achieved by 2030.[51] Progress towards the targets is measured by six indicators.[51] Three out of the five targets are outcome targets: Universal access to modern energy; increase global percentage of renewable energy; double the improvement in energy efficiency. The remaining two targets are means of implementation targets[52]: to promote access to research, technology and investments in clean energy; and expand and upgrade energy services for developing countries. In other words, these targets include access to affordable and reliable energy while increasing the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix. They also focus on improving energy efficiency, international cooperation and investment in clean energy infrastructure.

 

Goal 8: Decent work and economic growth[edit]

SDG 8 is to: “Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all”.[53] Important indicators for this goal include economic growth in least developed countries and the rate of real GDP per capita. Further examples are rates of youth unemployment and occupational injuries or the number of women engaged in the labor force compared to men.[53]

This section is an excerpt from Sustainable Development Goal 8.[edit]

SDG 8 has twelve targets in total to be achieved by 2030. Some targets are for 2030; others are for 2020. The first ten are outcome targets. These are; “sustainable economic growth; diversify, innovate and upgrade for economic productivity“, “promote policies to support job creation and growing enterprises”, “improve resource efficiency in consumption and production”, ‘full employment and decent work with equal pay‘, ‘promote youth employment, education and training’, ‘end modern slavery, trafficking, and child labour‘, ‘protect labour rights and promote safe working environments’, ‘promote beneficial and sustainable tourism‘, universal access to banking, insurance and financial services. In addition, there are also two targets for means of implementation[54], which are: Increase aid for trade support; develop a global youth employment strategy.

 

Goal 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure[edit]

SDG 9 is to: “Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and foster innovation”.[55] Indicators in this goal include for example the proportion of people who are employed in manufacturing activities or who are living in areas covered by a mobile network or who have access to the internet.[14] An indicator that is connected to climate change is “CO2 emissions per unit of value added”.

This section is an excerpt from Sustainable Development Goal 9.[edit]

SDG 9 has eight targets, and progress is measured by twelve indicators. The first five targets are outcome targets: develop sustainable, resilient and inclusive infrastructures; promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization; increase access to financial services and markets; upgrade all industries and infrastructures for sustainability; enhance research and upgrade industrial technologies. The remaining three targets are means of implementation targets[56]: Facilitate sustainable infrastructure development for developing countries; support domestic technology development and industrial diversification; universal access to information and communications technology.

 

Goal 10: Reduced inequality[edit]

SDG 10 is to: “Reduce income inequality within and among countries”.[57] Important indicators for this SDG are income disparities, aspects of gender and disability, as well as policies for migration and mobility of people.[58]

This section is an excerpt from Sustainable Development Goal 10.[edit]

The Goal has ten targets to be achieved by 2030. Progress towards targets will be measured by indicators. The first seven targets are outcome targets: Reduce income inequalities; promote universal social, economic and political inclusion; ensure equal opportunities and end discrimination; adopt fiscal and social policies that promotes equality; improved regulation of global financial markets and institutions; enhanced representation for developing countries in financial institutions; responsible and well-managed migration policies. The other three targets are means of implementation targets[59]: Special and differential treatment for developing countries; encourage development assistance and investment in least developed countries; reduce transaction costs for migrant remittances.[60]

 

Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities[edit]

SDG 11 is to: “Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable”.[61] Important indicators for this goal are the number of people living in urban slums, the proportion of the urban population who has convenient access to public transport, and the extent of built-up area per person.[14]

This section is an excerpt from Sustainable Development Goal 11.[edit]

SDG 11 has 10 targets to be achieved, and this is being measured with 15 indicators. The seven outcome targets include safe and affordable housing, affordable and sustainable transport systems, inclusive and sustainable urbanization, protection of the world’s cultural and natural heritage, reduction of the adverse effects of natural disasters, reduction of the environmental impacts of cities and to provide access to safe and inclusive green and public spaces. The three means of implementation targets[62] include strong national and regional development planning, implementing policies for inclusion, resource efficiency, and disaster risk reduction in supporting the least developed countries in sustainable and resilient building.[63][64]

 

Goal 12: Responsible consumption and production[edit]

SDG 12 is to: “Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns”.[65] One of the indicators is the number of national policy instrument to promote sustainable consumption and production patterns.[14]: 14  Another one is global fossil fuel subsidies.[14]: 14  An increase in domestic recycling and a reduced reliance on the global plastic waste trade are other actions that might help meet the goal.[66]

This section is an excerpt from Sustainable Development Goal 12.[edit]

Sustainable Development Goal 12 has 11 targets. The first 8 are outcome targets, which are: implement the 10‑Year Framework of Programs on Sustainable Consumption and Production Patterns; achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources; reducing by half the per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and the reduction of food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses; achieving the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle; reducing waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse; encourage companies to adopt sustainable practices; promote public procurement practices that are sustainable; and ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness for sustainable development. The three means of implementation targets[67] are: support developing countries to strengthen their scientific and technological capacity; develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts; and remove market distortions, like fossil fuel subsidies, that encourage wasteful consumption.[68]

 

Goal 13: Climate action[edit]

SDG 13 is to: “Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts by regulating emissions and promoting developments in renewable energy”.[69] In 2021 to early 2023, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) published its Sixth Assessment Report which assesses scientific, technical, and socio-economic information concerning climate change.[70]

This section is an excerpt from Sustainable Development Goal 13.[edit]

SDG 13 has five targets which are to be achieved by 2030. They cover a wide range of issues surrounding climate action. The first three targets are outcome targets: Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related disasters; integrate climate change measures into policies and planning; build knowledge and capacity to meet climate change. The remaining two targets are means of implementation targets[71]: To implement the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and to promote mechanisms to raise capacity for planning and management. Along with each target, there are indicators that provide a method to review the overall progress of each target. The UNFCCC is the primary international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change.

 

Goal 14: Life below water[edit]

SDG 14 is to: “Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development“.[72] The current efforts to protect oceans, marine environments and small-scale fishers are not meeting the need to protect the resources.[14] Increased ocean temperatures and oxygen loss act concurrently with ocean acidification and constitute the deadly trio of climate change pressures on the marine environment.[73]

This section is an excerpt from Sustainable Development Goal 14.[edit]

The first seven targets are outcome targets: Reduce marine pollution; protect and restore ecosystems; reduce ocean acidification; sustainable fishing; conserve coastal and marine areas; end subsidies contributing to overfishing; increase the economic benefits from sustainable use of marine resources. The last three targets are means of implementation targets[74]: To increase scientific knowledge, research and technology for ocean health; support small scale fishers; implement and enforce international sea law.[75] One indicator (14.1.1b) under Goal 14 specifically relates to reducing impacts from marine plastic pollution.[76]

 

Goal 15: Life on land[edit]

SDG 15 is to: “Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss“.[77] The proportion of remaining forest area, desertification and species extinction risk are example indicators of this goal.[14][78]

This section is an excerpt from Sustainable Development Goal 15.[edit]

The nine outcome targets include: Conserve and restore terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems; end deforestation and restore degraded forests; end desertification and restore degraded land; ensure conservation of mountain ecosystems, protect biodiversity and natural habitats; protect access to genetic resources and fair sharing of the benefits; eliminate poaching and trafficking of protected species; prevent invasive alien species on land and in water ecosystems; and integrate ecosystem and biodiversity in governmental planning. The three means of implementation targets[79] include: Increase financial resources to conserve and sustainably use ecosystem and biodiversity; finance and incentivize sustainable forest management; combat global poaching and trafficking.

 

Goal 16: Peace, justice and strong institutions[edit]

SDG 16 is to: “Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels”.[80] Rates of birth registration and prevalence of bribery are two examples of indicators included in this goal.[81] [14]

This section is an excerpt from Sustainable Development Goal 16.[edit]

SDG 16 has ten outcome targets: Reduce violence; protect children from abuse, exploitation, trafficking and violence; promote the rule of law and ensure equal access to justice; combat organized crime and illicit financial and arms flows, substantially reduce corruption and bribery; develop effective, accountable and transparent institutions; ensure responsive, inclusive and representative decision-making; strengthen the participation in global governance; provide universal legal identity; ensure public access to information and protect fundamental freedoms. There are also two means of implementation targets[82]: Strengthen national institutions to prevent violence and combat crime and terrorism; promote and enforce non-discriminatory laws and policies.[83]

 

Goal 17: Partnership for the goals[edit]

SDG 17 is to: “Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development”.[84] Increasing international cooperation is seen as vital to achieving each of the 16 previous goals.[85] Developing multi-stakeholder partnerships to share knowledge, expertise, technology, and financial support is seen as critical to overall success of the SDGs. The goal encompasses improving north–south and South-South cooperation, and public-private partnerships which involve civil societies are specifically mentioned.[86][87]

This section is an excerpt from Sustainable Development Goal 17.[edit]

SDG 17 is a vision for improved and more equitable trade, as well as coordinated investment initiatives to promote sustainable development across borders. It is about strengthening and streamlining cooperation between nation-states, both developed and developing, using the SDGs as a shared framework and a shared vision for defining that collaborative way forward.[88] It seeks to promote international trade and an equitable trading system.[89] The Goal has 17 targets to be achieved by 2030, broken down into five categories: finance, technology, capacity building, trade and systemic issues. Progress towards targets will be measured by 25 indicators.[88][90] All these targets are regarded as means of implementation targets.[91]

Cross-cutting issues and synergies[edit]

To achieve sustainable development, three aspects or dimensions need to come together: The economic, socio-political, and environmental dimensions are all critically important and interdependent.[92] Progress will require multidisciplinary and trans-disciplinary research across all three sectors. This proves difficult when major governments fail to support it.[92]

Cross cutting issues include for example gender equality, education, culture and health. These are just some examples of various interlinkages inherent in the SDGs.

 

Gender equality[edit]

The widespread consensus is that progress on all of the SDGs will be stalled if women’s empowerment and gender equality are not prioritized, and treated holistically. The SDGs look to policy makers as well as private sector executives and board members to work toward gender equality.[93][94] Statements from diverse sources, such as the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), UN Women and the World Pensions Forum, have noted that investments in women and girls have positive impacts on economies. National and global development investments in women and girls often exceed their initial scope.[95]

Gender equality is mainstreamed throughout the SDG framework by ensuring that as much sex-disaggregated data as possible are collected.[96]: 11 

 

Education and culture[edit]

Education for sustainable development (ESD) is explicitly recognized in the SDGs as part of Target 4.7 of the SDG on education. UNESCO promotes the Global Citizenship Education (GCED) as a complementary approach.[97] Education for sustainable development is important for all the other 16 SDGs.[98]

Culture is explicitly referenced in SDG 11 Target 4 (“Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage”). However, culture is seen as a cross-cutting theme because it impacts several SDGs.[96] For example, culture plays a role in SDG targets where they relate to environment and resilience (within SDGs 11, 12 and 16), prosperity and livelihoods (within SDG 8), inclusion and participation (within SDG 11 and 16).[96]: 2 

 

Health[edit]

SDGs 1 to 6 directly address health disparities, primarily in developing countries.[99] These six goals address key issues in Global Public Health, Poverty, Hunger and Food security, Health, Education, Gender equality and women’s empowerment, and water and sanitation.[99] Public health officials can use these goals to set their own agenda and plan for smaller scale initiatives for their organizations.

The links between the various sustainable development goals and public health are numerous and well established:

  • SDG 1: Living below the poverty line is attributed to poorer health outcomes and can be even worse for persons living in developing countries where extreme povertyis more common.[100] A child born into poverty is twice as likely to die before the age of five compared to a child from a wealthier family.[101]
  • SDG 2: The detrimental effects of hunger and malnutritionthat can arise from systemic challenges with food security are enormous. The World Health Organization estimates that 12.9 percent of the population in developing countries is undernourished.[102]
  • SDG 4 and 5: Educational equityhas yet to be reached in the world. Public health efforts are impeded by this, as a lack of education can lead to poorer health outcomes. This is shown by children of mothers who have no education having a lower survival rate compared to children born to mothers with primary or greater levels of education.[101]